What Does It Mean to Be Intelligent?

In 1938 Louis Thurstone produced convincing data that argued for a definition of human intelligence based on at least seven primary mental capabilities: verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, inductive reasoning, spatial visualization, number memory and perceptual speed.

By the 1950s in the United States, J.P. Guilford had introduced scientific evidence that intelligence is comprised of somewhere between 120 and 150 factors. Guilford further grouped these factors into three categories: operations, contents, and products.

A unique and distinct feature of the Guilford model is that it differentiates divergent-fluid or creative thinking abilities and logical-convergent problem solving.

The Guilford model has enjoyed great appeal for its scope and comprehensiveness, but has frequently been found to be too complex and unwieldy for practical applications. Hence, it has fallen into disfavor.

Another influential theory of intelligence called the "two-factor model", uses standard IQ tests as a basis for an understanding of two types of intelligence: "fluid" and "crystallized." Fluid intelligence is the ability to understand abstract and often novel relations. Crystallized intelligence is comprised on one's ability to manipulate and use one's accumulation of knowledge and general information.

A similar but competing theory by Robert Sternberg (1988) is the Triarchic Model, which posits that there are three different kinds of intellectual abilities: academic, practical and creative. Obviously, academic skills are those required for success in schools (verbal memory, math skills, etc.) while practical intelligence is associated with informal reasoning, common sense and everyday problem solving. Creative thinking is finding new and unique solutions to problems.

In his landmark book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983), Howard Gardner provided extensive research to support his contention that human intelligence is best conceptualized as seven (7) relatively independent faculties. Gardner has revised his theory in recent years to cover eight (8) independent intelligences.

Gardner (1999a) redefined intelligence as, "a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture."

Gardner's definition of intelligence is unique for several reasons:

Gardner uses this multi-faceted definition as a lense through which to observe and evaluate evidence supporting the theory of Multiple Intelligences for all people in all cultures.

There is growing evidence that each person, due to both circumstances of birth and environmental influences, has his/her own unique profile of strengths and weaknesses in the eight intelligences.

So, now that you've had a whirlwind tour of the evolution of the definition of intelligence, please stop: pause for a minute or two and reflect on all the different definitions and models of human intelligence.

Review the lists you jotted down earlier -- of words associated with intelligence; of people you consider to be intelligent; and about times in your own life you felt most intelligent.

Give some more thought to your one sentence description of what it means to be intelligent.

In light of what you've read here, how would you revise your definition of what it means to be an intelligent person in the 21st century?

Have you found a definition or description of intelligence that makes more sense to you now and matches with your real life experience?

Intelligence is...

Note: For those who want to test their reading comprehension, don't miss the mutiple choice quiz on the next page!)

For More on Alfred Binet:

Binet's 1905 paper which introduces the Binet-Simon Scale; New Methods for the Diangnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals.

For More on Dr. Howard Gardner:

A Nice Biographical Essay about Dr. Gardner.

Dr. Gardner's Project Zero site at Harvard.

Dr. Gardner's personal home page.